1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Middleweight (-75 kg) | sixth | 960 |
960 |
1984 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Welterweight (-67 kg) | R32 | 1.088 |
1.088 |
1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Light-Welterweight (-63.5 kg) | R2 | 79.13 |
79.13 |
1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | QU:5th | 80 |
80 |
1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Lightweight (-61.2 kg) | silver | 6000 |
6000 |
B. 1909-07-31, Budapest, Hungary; D. 1946-09-10
Waterpolo (2 gold, 1 silver)
1928 | 1932 | 1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Waterpolo | silver | gold | gold | 12600 |
12600 |
1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Trap | gold | 8000 |
Men's Trap, Team | 10th | 25 |
8025 |
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | 16th | 3.2 |
3.2 |
1952 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Coxed Pairs | 2Rep:3rd | 162.5 |
162.5 |
1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Road Race | 52nd | -6.60 |
Men's 100 km Team Time Trial | 17th | 3 |
3.0000006 |
1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Road Race | 40th | -3.15 |
Men's 100 km Team Time Trial | 17th | 3 |
3.00015 |
1976 | 1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Team | 7th | Prel:4th | 364 |
364 |
Olympic Competitor nr 4364
1956 | 1960 | 1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men's 1500 metres | 11th | 64 | ||
Men's 5000 metres | gold | R1:4th | 6414.5 | |
Men's 10000 metres | fifth | 7th | 1400 | |
7878.5 |
1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Épée, Individual | SF:9th | 4.1 |
Men's Épée, Team | QF:4th | 6.4 |
Men's Sabre, Team | fourth | 400 |
410.5 |
1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Sculpture | 4 works | 116.96 |
116.96 |
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's 4x100 metres Freestyle Relay | silver | 1000 |
1000 |
1906 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Coxed Pairs (1 km) | fourth | 900 |
Coxed Pairs (1 mile) | bronze | 1440 |
Coxed Fours | bronze | 1440 |
3780 |
Olympic Competitor nr 2625
1932 | 1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Sculpture | ac | 5.34 | |
Sculpture, Medals | 2 entries | 76.84 | |
82.18 |
1972 | 1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Trap | 17th | gold | 9606 |
9606 |
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | gold | 3200 |
3200 |
Olympic Competitor nr 7034
1956 | 1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Team | gold | gold | 6400 |
6400 |
1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Eights | Rep:4th | 10.4 |
10.4 |
1984 | 1988 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Skeet | eighth | 44th | 384.000024 |
384.000024 |
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 400 metres Freestyle | 7th | 400 |
Men's 1500 metres Freestyle | SF:dns | 6.4 |
Men's 4x200 m Freestyle Relay | R1:9th | 40 |
446.4 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Painting | ac | 2.186 |
2.186 |
1984 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's Team | fifth | 500 |
500 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Painting | 1 entry HC | - |
- |
Entry "Hors Concours", presumably because he had died in 1931, so not acceptable as a real Olympian competitor.
1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Single Sculls | 8th | 384 |
384 |
1984 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 100 metres | R1:49th | -5.16 |
Men's 200 metres | R1:41st | -4.64 |
0.0000656 |
Olympic Competitor nr 6320
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's High Jump | 12th | 60 |
60 |
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Lightweight (-68 kg) | 15th | 15 |
15 |
He was among the hostages killed at the Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base.
1904 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | bronze | 1500 |
1500 |
The Mohawk Indians are credited with the bronze medal, but they tied their only match with the St. Louis AAA, so I award them the points for joined second place.
Olympic Competitor nr 1827
1980 | 1984 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Light-Middleweight (-71 kg) | R1 | R1 | 3.261 |
3.261 |
1906 | 1908 | 1912 | 1920 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men's Lightweight (-75 kg) | QF | 1122.651 | |||
Men's Lightweight (-66.6 kg) | R1 | ||||
Men's Lightweight (-67.5 kg) | R2 | R2 | |||
1122.651 |
Olympic Competitor nr 2843
1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Bantamweight (-57 kg) | 12th | 60 |
60 |
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | R1 | 26.38 |
26.38 |
1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 100 m Freestyle | 31st | -2.64 |
Men's 4 x 200 m Freestyle Relay | 12th | 10 |
12.0064 |
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Singles | 20th | 1.5 |
Doubles | 14th | 20 |
21.5 |
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Individual | 12th | 60 |
60 |
1972 | 1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Pairs | 10th | 8th | 445 |
445 |
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team Pursuit | QU:16th | 4.8 |
4.8 |
1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's Discus Throw | QU:17th | 6 |
6 |
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Coxless Fours | silver | 3000 |
3000 |
1956 | 1960 | 1964 | 1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men's Hammer Throw | fourth | 14th | 12th | QU:14th | 2508 |
2508 |
1904 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | gold | 2400 |
2400 |
This athlete was born in Scotland and only moved to Canada in 1901. After 1904 he returned to Europe, and only permanently went to Canada in 1923. So he might be considered British. However, separate Canadian citizenship was created only in 1946, and any British subject who lived in Canada would be entitled to represent Canada, even if rules had been stricter. I shall continue to class him as Canadian.
Olympic Competitor nr 2343
1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | fourth | 800 |
800 |
Olympic Competitor nr 3842
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Painting - Paintings | AC | 2.873 |
Painting - unknown event | 2 entries | 5.746 |
8.619 |
1900 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 800 metres | bronze | 2560 |
Men's 1500 metres | fourth | 1600 |
4160 |
Olympic Competitor nr 794
1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Four/Five | 9th | 120 |
120 |
1956 | 1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's 20 kilometres Walk | 10th | 100 | |
Men's 50 kilometres Walk | 9th | 160 | |
260 |
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 110 m Hurdles | silver | 6000 |
6000 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's 80 metres Hurdles | silver | 6000 |
6000 |
Olympic Competitor nr 5068
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Three Person Keelboat (Dragon) | 9th | 160 |
160 |
B. 1974-09-26, Cincinnatti, Ohio, USA
Swimming (5 gold, 3 silver, 2 bronze)
1996 | 2000 | 2004 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
50 m Free-style | silver | gold | gold | 25200 |
100 m Free-style | silver | bronze | - | 6560 |
4x100 m Free-style Relay | gold | silver | (bronze) | 2664 |
4x100 m Medley Relay | gold | gold | - | 3200 |
37624 |
The gold on 50m at Sydney was a dead heat, Anthony Ervin also receiving a
gold medal.
He was left out of the relay squad in Athina to make place for Michael Phelps,
but the Americans were beaten. Hall did get a bronze medal.
B. 1951-08-07 Fayetteville, NC, USA
Swimming (1 gold, 2 silver, 1 bronze)
1968 | 1972 | 1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
200 m Butterfly | - | silver | - | 4000 |
100 m Butterfly | - | - | bronze | 2560 |
200 m Backstroke | fourth | - | - | 1600 |
200 m Individual Medley | - | fourth | - | 1600 |
400 m Individual Medley | silver | fifth | - | 5000 |
4x100 m Medley Relay | - | qual. | - | 64 |
14824 |
1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | 7th | 200 |
200 |
1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Middle−Heavyweight (-90 kg) | 16th | 9.6 |
9.6 |
1952 | 1956 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Featherweight (-62 kg) | 16th | 11th | 105.6 |
105.6 |
1924 | 1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's 100 m | R1:3rd | 0.00016 | |
Men's 200 m | R1:4th | R1:4th | 0.00000282 |
Men's 400 m | QF:5th | 0.043 | |
0.043016282 |
1960 | 1964 | 1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dressage, Individual | 13th | 12th | 14th | 108.4 |
Dressage, Team | fifth | 250 | ||
358.4 |
1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Small−Bore Rifle, Prone | 23rd | 0.256 |
0.256 |
B. 1951-05-15, Tacoma, Wash., USA
Swimming (2 gold, 1 bronze)
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
100 m Backstroke | gold | 6400 |
200 m Backstroke | bronze | 2560 |
4x100 m Medley Relay | gold | 1600 |
10560 |
B. 1927-04-30, Karlskrona, Sweden; D. 1991-04-26
Modern Pentathlon (2 gold, 1 silver)
1952 | 1956 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Individual | gold | gold | 16000 |
Team | silver | dnf | 1010 |
17010 |
The only repeat winner of the Modern Pentathlon was very lucky in 1952. The
first horse that he'd drawn turned out lame, but the second one was the best
horse in Finland. And then he turned up 20 minutes late for the shooting,
but the competition hadn't started yet because of some Soviet protests.
He also became World Champion in 1950 and '51.
1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Welterweight (-66.7 kg) | R2 | 79.13 |
79.13 |
He was born in South Africa, but represented Rhodesia at Amsterdam. He represented South Africa at the British Empire Games in 1930, but there was no Rhodesian team there.
There is little option but to award this competitor the nationality of Zimbabwe.
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Featherweight (-61 kg) | 8th | 384 |
384 |
1956 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Running Target | 11th | 96 |
96 |
1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Springboard | silver | 4000 |
4000 |
Olympic Competitor nr 5452
1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Javelin Throw | 15th | 15 |
15 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Eights | gold | 3200 |
3200 |
1956 | 1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Jumping, Individual | gold | fifth | 9250 |
Jumping, Team | gold | gold | 3200 |
12450 |
Ridden by Hans-Günther Winkler.
1968 | 1972 | 1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men's Individual Pursuit | R1:15th | R1:10th | R1:20th | 166.5 |
Men's Team Pursuit | R1:12th | bronze | bronze | 3870 |
4036.5 |
Olympic Competitor 3370
1984 | 1988 | 1992 | 1996 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men's Individual | 21st | 21st | 13th | 55th | 33.760000125 |
Men's Team | bronze | bronze | 1280 | ||
1313.760000125 |
1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Light Heavyweight (-82.5 kg) | 9th | 240 |
240 |
1928 | 1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Jumping, Individual | 25th | fifth | 1250.125 |
Jumping, Team | bronze | dnf | 1280 |
Three-Day Event, Individual | fifth | 1250 | |
Three-Day Event, Team | dnf | 400 | |
4180.125 |
Olympic Competitor nr 5819
1928 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Long Jump | 10th | 150 |
150 |
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Flyweight (-50.8 kg) | R1 | 2.836 |
2.836 |
1976 | 1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Shot Put | QU:15th | 10th | 165 |
165 |
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 5000 metres | 7th | 400 |
400 |
1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Quadruple Sculls | sixth | 480 |
480 |
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Four−Man | 16th | 4.8 |
4.8 |
1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Doubles | 10th | 125 |
125 |
1980 | 1984 | 1988 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men's 15 kilometres | 29th | 28th | dnf | 0.0416 |
Men's 30 kilometres | 28th | 0.0256 | ||
Men's 50 kilometres | dnf | 9th | 160 | |
Men's 4 x 10 km Relay | 7th | fifth | 350 | |
510.0672 |
1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 100 metres Freestyle | R1:47th | -5.40 |
0.000004 |
1904 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Featherweight (-56.7 kg) | silver | 4500 |
4500 |
Olympic Competitor nr 2285
1936 | 1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Light−Heavyweight (-82.5 kg) | sixth | 14th | 984 |
984 |
Olympic Competitor nr 7237
There were 22 and 23 competitors in the individual Running Deer competitions, and probably a maximum of 5 shooters per country. 4 teams (of 5) competed in the team event, so there are at least 2/3 unknown competitors in the individual events, most probably Belgians (there was no Belgian team in the team competition). J Haller is known to have competed in the Olympic shooting, but it is not known in which event. I have chosen to put his name in this slot.
1920 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Single Sculls | R1 | 195 |
195 |
1900 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Foil for Masters, Individual | 9th | 240 |
Men's Épée for Masters, Individual | SF:ac | 29.84 |
269.84 |
Olympic Competitor nr 345
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | QF | 287 |
287 |
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Featherweight (-60 kg) | 14th | 24 |
24 |
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 200 metres Breaststroke | R1:28th | 0.0384 |
0.0384 |
1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Free Rifle, prone | 14th | 20 |
Men's Free Rifle, team | 9th | 40 |
60 |
1948 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Triple Jump | 9th | 240 |
240 |
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 100 metres | QF:31st | -2.64 |
Men's 4x100 m Relay | SF:6th | 13 |
13.0064 |
1948 | 1952 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Lightweight (-67.5 kg) | bronze | dnf | 3840.24 |
3840.24 |
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
20 km | 59th | -7.20 |
4 x 7.5 km Relay | 12th | 10 |
10.00000002 |
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Coxed Fours | fourth | 1200 |
1200 |
Olympic Competitor nr 4396
Born and died in New Zealand, but representing Scotland during his university days and Great Britain at the 1908 Olympics.
1952 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 10000 metres | 20th | 1 |
1 |
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | R1 | 26.38 |
26.38 |
1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Trap | 29th | 0.02 |
Men's Trap, Team | fourth | 400 |
400.02 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | silver | 2000 |
2000 |
1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's 100 metres Freestyle | R2:9th | 160 |
WoWomen's 4x100 metres Freestyle Relay | (gold) | 64 |
224 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 100m Freestyle | R1:5th | 2.29 |
Men's 100m Backstroke | R1:3rd | 96 |
98.29 |
1952 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 200 metres Breaststroke | R1:32nd | 0.006 |
0.006 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 1500 metres | sixth | 640 |
640 |
Olympic Competitor nr 3423
Olympic Competitor nr 4882
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | 12th | 20 |
20 |
Olympic Competitor nr 5502
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | QU:4th | 7.25 |
7.25 |
1956 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Jumping, Individual | dnf | -9.80 |
Jumping, Team | dnf | - |
-9.80 |
1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | fifth | 500 |
500 |
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Coxless Fours | Rep:3rd | 246 |
246 |
In some sources his name is mentioned as:
In Slovak sources his name is given as
1900 | 1904 | 1906 | 1908 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men's 50 yds Free-style | gold | 4800 | |||
Men's 100 m Free-style | (bronze) | silver | silver | 13500 | |
Men's 100 yds Free-style | gold | ||||
Men's 200 m Freestyle | silver | 4000 | |||
Men's 1000 m Freestyle | bronze | 2560 | |||
Men's 4000 m Freestyle | silver | 4000 | |||
Men's 4x250 m Free-style Relay | gold | 1950 | |||
Men's 4x200 m Free-style Relay | silver | ||||
30810 |
According to the web-site for the
Slovakian Olympic
Committee, he was born in Slovakia, but they do not call him Slovakian.
Considering he died in Budapest and his first names are definitely
Hungarian, he should be counted as an Hungarian.
At 50 yards at St-Louis, the judges could not agree on the result of the
final, so a second race was swam. Charles Daniels
came third.
He also won silver at 100 m at Athina in 1906.
The 100 m event at Paris is not listed in all sources, but seems to have
been a separate, official event (Information supplied by the IASF, according
to the Hungarian authors) The event is notably
completely absent in Mallon.
Since Halmay was among the medals in the shortest event in all Olympics between
1900 and 1908, he certainly merits the extra 25% for the 100 meters.
Olympic Competitor nr 1270
Olympic Competitor nr 3725
1952 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's High Jump | 11th | 96 |
96 |
1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 100 m | QF:5th | 0.043 |
Men's 4 x 100 m Relay | R1:3rd | 4.3 |
4.343 |
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | fifth | 500 |
500 |
1952 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Hammer Throw | 19th | 2.4 |
2.4 |
Olympic Competitor nr 6429
1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Lightweight (-60 kg) | R32 | 1.02 |
1.02 |
1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Marathon | fourth | 2400 |
2400 |
1960 | 1964 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Individual | silver | 6000 | |
Men's Normal Hill | 14th | 16 | |
Men's Large Hill | 14th | 16 | |
6032 |
1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's 500 metres | 8th | 256 |
Women's 1000 metres | 13th | 25.6 |
Women's 3000 metres | 22nd | 0.4 |
282 |
1980 | 1984 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Flyweight (-52 kg) | 7th | sixth | 1560 |
1560 |
1920 | 1924 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Singles | R1 | 0.00027 | |
Men's Doubles | R1 | R1 | 1.795 |
Mixed Doubles | QF | R2 | 470.06 |
471.85527 |
Olympic Competitor nr 6358
although they came fourth, three athletes received a bronze medal (behind one gold and two silvers) in the 1912 pole vault.
1960 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Two−Person Keelboat (Star) | bronze | 3200 |
3200 |
1984 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Doubles, 500 m | SF:4th | 51 |
51 |
1920 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Sprint | SF:3rd | 408 |
408 |
Olympic Competitor nr 5592
1984 | 1988 | 1992 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men's 50 m Freestyle | fourth | 16th | 1606.4 | |
Men's 100 m Freestyle | fifth | 23rd | 1000.256 | |
Men's 100 m Butterfly | 11th | 64 | ||
Men's 4x100 m Freestyle Relay | 9th | 40 | ||
Men's 4x100 m Medley Relay | seventh | 9th | 140 | |
2848.656 |
1906 | 1908 | 1912 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men's Shot Put | ac | 28.64 | ||
Men's Javelin Throw | 7th | bronze | 7th | 2770 |
Men's Javelin Throw, Greek Style | silver | 3000 | ||
Men's Javelin Throw, Both Hands | fifth | 1000 | ||
6798.64 |
Olympic Competitor nr 2990
1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Giant Slalom | 11th | 64 |
Men's Slalom | 16th | 6.4 |
70.4 |
Olympic Competitor nr 3410
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's 4x100 metres Relay | bronze | 640 |
640 |
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Foil, Team | R2 | 32.5 |
Men's Épée, Individual | Bar2 | 1.659 |
Men's Épée, Team | QF | 82 |
116.159 |
1932 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Sculpture | 3 entries | 16.02 |
16.02 |
1906 | 1908 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's 100 metres | SF:3rd | 204 | |
Men's 400 metres | silver | gold | 7800 |
Men's 800 metres | bronze | 1920 | |
9924 |
Olympic Competitor nr 2874
1936 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Women's 100 metres | R1:5th | 0.043 |
Women's 4x100 metres Relay | R1:4th | 82 |
82.043 |
1960 | 1964 | 1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men's 20 kilometres Walk | 24th | fourth | 1600.16 | |
1600.16 |
Olympic Competitor nr 4344
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Coxless Fours | 8th | 192 |
192 |
1972 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | R1:3rd | 45.5 |
45.5 |
1968 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's 15 km | fifth | 1000 |
Men's 30 km | 12th | 40 |
Men's 50 km | 7th | 400 |
Men's 4x10 km Relay | silver | 1000 |
2440 |
1984 | 1988 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Men's Slalom | eighth | disq | 256 |
256 |
1920 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Team | CR1 | 164 |
164 |
He was coach to the Norwegian bronze medal team in 1936.
1976 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Normal Hill | 37th | -3.40 |
Men's Large Hill | 35th | -2.10 |
0.0014 |
1906 | 1908 | HP | |
---|---|---|---|
Team combined, Swedish system | gold | silver | 1950 |
1950 |
Olympic Competitor nr 2398
1984 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Three Person Keelboat (Soling) | fifth | 1000 |
1000 |
1980 | HP | |
---|---|---|
Men's Marathon | 43rd | -4.38 |
0.0000384 |
Written 2000-12-01 - last modified 2024-08-20
This page is part of the site "Full Olympians" by Herman De Wael. See here for a full Introduction.